History/timeline of Graphic Design: Typography/Type

Tools and materials determine the look of writing. Clay, sticks, sharpened bones and plant stems, stylus, feathers and later cast metal were used to make marks on papyrus, animal skins ‹vellum and parchment› and paper.

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1

.lay Bullae

8000 BC—3100 BC

Mesopotamia

ion changed from nomadic hunters into a more agricultural society and began to trade goods, it was necessary to find a way to record transactions. Small portable clay tokens were made in specific shapes to represent objects in approximately sixteen economic categories, sheep, grain,oil etc. The tokens were stored in clay ball-shaped envelopes, bullae, which were impressed on the outside with the shapes of the tokens found within.

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As civiliza

t0 BC the tokens themselves were eliminated and the just the shapes of the tokens were drawn on clay tablets. (This was still not a system of writing — writing is used to represent language not as an accounting tool). The end of using tokens coincided roughly with the emergence of a system for graphically recording spoken language.

2.

Cuneiform

3100 BC

heir work as they wrote or to keep the clay from being smeared.

3Hieroglyphics

2613-2160 BC

art of relief carving, in fact the Greek translation of the term means "sacred carving." Hieroglyphics adorned the walls of tombs to connect the mummified dead to the divine world. The system was a mixture of both rebus and phonetic characters —the first link to a future alphabetic sys

A writing system is fused with the

Cuneiform, the oldest known form of actual writing, was written with a wedge shaped stylus pressed into wet clay tablets. The characters started out as pictograms but later were rotated onto their sides, abstracted into symbols and organized into horizontal rows. Cuneiform was written from left to right, perhaps as it helped a right-handed writer to see
ttem. Write like an Egyptian at this link Below are excerpts from "Die Schriftenwicklung" (The Development of Writing) Hs.Ed.Meyer, Graphis Press, Zurich, Switzerland, 1958 The complete digital version of this book has been placed on the web by Dean Allen on his "Evolution of Western Writing." See the Catich Collection stone-carved Capiltaiis Monumentalis 4. Early Greek 5th C. BC Early Greek was written in straight rows but read in alternate directions, reading from left to right and then switching to right to left —"boustrophedon" or "as the ox plows." Most scholars believe that the Greek alphabet was borrowed from the Phoenicians and passed on to the Greeks who added vowels. 5. Early Roman Lapidary 2nd Century BC

dered by many to embody the ultimate resolution of Latin letterform evolution. They have been studied by numerous type designers for almost 20 centuries—with many spinoff fonts

As copied from the Greek style, the first Roman stone carved letters were of equal width and were without serifs. Rudimentary word spacing begins with dots used to divide words. 6. Classical Roman Lapidary 1st C. AD The first serifs are theorized to originate with the stone cutter's horizontal finish of the carved line to decrease the chance of a stone splintering at the end of a line and/or to mimic the thickness of the initial brush drawn guides. "The lapidary stone-engraved letters were painted on stone with a square-cut tool and then incised; from such means resulted the thick and thin variations of the strokes and the serifs." Trajan's Column 113AD The letters in the inscription at the base of this monument are cons
iincluding the famous Edward Johnston, Eric Gill and Carol Twombly reinterpretations. Father Edward Catich, an calligrapher, authority on stone incising and authority on the Roman alphabet, theorized that serifs evolved from stone cutters following the form of brush painted letters in his 1968 work "The Origin of the Serif" Majuscules and Minuscules 7. Roman Capitals (above) 1st C. AD These early scripts were attempts to copy the characteristics of letters that were inscribed in stone. They were written mostly on vellum with a flat edged reed or quill nib held nearly parallel to the baseline. 8. Uncials (above) 5th C. AD Letterforms taken from the square capitals of stone carving and written majuscules. Early Christian works used this hand which was written between 2 guidelines of one uncial — the name of the Roman inch measure. 9. Half Uncials (above) 6th C. AD

a "Classical" type style.

lcuin of York

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isor to Charlemagne, he set up a school for all monks with standards for clear and legible script

A scholar and ad

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Written between four guidelines allowing for the development of ascenders and descenders. This new style was easier and faster to write than the uncial style. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the end of a central advanced culture resulted in the break down of handwriting into various regional styles, some more legible than others. 10. Carolingian Minuscule 8th C. (789)—1100's Emperor Charlemagne ‹751—814› was crowned emperor in 800. He decreed that a standard style of writing be used across the vast Holy Roman Empire as a means of unifying his reign. The "Carolingian minuscule" is thought to have been developed through the efforts of the British monk, Alcuin of York. He based his clear and distinct letterforms on classical documents from ancient Rome. Centuries later, during the Renaissance, the Carolingian hand was mistaken for the original Roman and copied a
s: 1. Uniform spelling 2. The Carolingian style of well-formed lowercase letters 3. Capitals to begin a sentence and lowercase to continue 4. Space between words 5. Standard punctuation 6. Division into sentences and paragraphs. 11. Blackletter: The Gothic Hands 12—15th C. After the death of Charlemagne handwriting became more condensed and angular. Word spacing, linespacing and letterspacing were reduced to conserve space and materials. As churches and universities increased, so did the opportunities for secular professional scribes, both men and women. Both Carolingian and Blackletter began in France and devolved into variations of regional style. Four Styles of Blackletter As stated by Robert Bringhurst in his Elements of Typographic Style, "blackletter is the typographic counterpoint to the Gothic style in architecture." There are 4 basic styles of Blackletter that emerged from 13 to 16th centuries. • Textura ‹formal› • Rotunda ‹formal› • Bastarda ‹semi-formal› • Cursive ‹informal›

t passion for seeking out and copying the ancient manuscr

Renaissance and the Humanist letter : Quill Pen & Compass 12.Renaissance Humanism "Renaissance Humanism is the spirit of learning that developed at the end of the middle ages with the revival of classical letters and a renewed confidence in the ability of human beings to determine for themselves truth and falsehood." Italian scholars, centered in Florence, sought to restore their lost heritage by reexamination of the literature of ancient Greece and Rome (studying writings including Plato and Aristotle.) The central feature of Humanism in this period was the commitment to the idea that the ancient world (defined effectively as ancient Greece and Rome) ... was the pinnacle of human achievement, especially intellectual achievement, and should be taken as a model by contemporary Europeans. Reviving the Lettera Antiqua "Graphic Designers owe a great debt to the Humanists, for it was they who created the script that became the model for small letters. The script came about through the Humani
sipts of the classical authors they admired. They were also attracted to the clear, open handwriting of the manuscripts they believed had been written in Roman times. In actual fact, the manuscripts the Humanists admired were mostly from the Carolingian period, and their script, which we call Humanistic, was derived from the Carolinigian Hand" Craig, 30 Centuries of Graphic Design page 50. Copyists used two forms of letters based upon the ancient, or "antique" Roman models—The Lettera Antiqua formata (for elaborate manuscripts) and the Lettera Antiqua corsiva (more informal) for scholastic works. (Quote Source, Leon Battista Alberti's Inscriptions on the Holy Sepulcher in the Cappella Rucellai, San Pancrazio, Florence, Christine M. Sperling) Poggio Bracciolini 1380—1450

undamentals, Huber & Headrick.)

issance architecture reintroduced the Classical Greek and Roman emphasis on symmetry, proportion, geometry and the regularity of parts from the work of ancient roman architect Vitruvius. Leonardo Da Vinci's Vitruvian Man exemplifies the blend of art and science

Ren

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An Italian humanist and calligrapher, foremost among scholars of the early Renaissance to rediscover lost, forgotten, or neglected classical Latin manuscripts in the monastic libraries of Europe. The manuscripts he studied and copied were not from ancient Rome but actually from the Carolingian period. Niccolò de' Niccoli (Florence) A Vatican scribe whose cursive hand was adapted by Aldus Manutius in 1501 "Aldinian" and later referred to as italic. Felice Feliciano Verona. c.1460 An expert on stone lettering, he published the first geometric study of the Roman inscriptions in 1463. He employed a module of a circle enclosed by a square with two diagonal lines extending from corner to corner. Alphabetum Romanum. (above) (Quote Source, Handwriting Identification: Facts and
Fduring the Renaissance — the human figure as the principal source of proportion among the Classical orders of architecture. Leon Battista Alberti 1522—1550 Alberti believed the circle and the square are the most perfect geometrical forms and architecture and alphabet should use them as a base. He revived the Roman tradition of inscribing letters on facades.(Above) Tempio Malatestiano di Rimini - L.B.Alberti Steel Pens & Engraving 13. George Bickham The Universal Penman 1741 The Universal Penman, published in 1741, was the ultimate guide to English penmanship. Engraved by George Bickham after the designs of England's finest scriptwriters, The Universal Penman was a compilation of broadsides, each one focusing on a different art, profession, emotion, or human moral. Beside the handwriting, may of the broadsides are highlighted with engraved vignette illustrations done by Bickham.

hina and Japan for several centuries, and Europeans had printed type with carved wooden blocks for about 100 years when a modular "moveable type" system was developed in about 1450. A number of people were working

on a system of "automated writing" but the

Mr. Bickham wrote books that were not for decorative purposes only, but rather to exemplify legible and easy styles of business hand for clerks and others whose jobs necessitated a good deal of writing and record-keeping, prior to the era of the typewriter. Letterforms in Metal : Mechanical Writing Leads to a Cultural Explosion Gutenberg's system: Cast metal Moveable Type The matrix is placed into a type mold (right) and then molten metal is poured into the matrix. The caster shakes the mold to avoid air pockets. The letterform is almost instantly ready to remove. Image link from "Type Casting." Type mold The image is taken from James Mosley's typeblog about the history of typography. Type foundry Documents for the History of Type and Letterforms." 14. Johann Gutenberg 15th C. Mainz, Germany (Visit the Gutenberg Museum) Printing had been practiced in Korea,
Ccommonly accepted originator of the modular moveable type system was Johann Gutenberg. 15. Making Type Punchcutting & Type Founding (See the steps) The first step in making metal type is to carve a letter on the end of a steel bar, the punch. That letterform is struck into a softer metal, copper, to create a matrix. A jeweler by profession, Gutenberg was knowledgeable in metal carving, casting and knew which metals worked best for each stage of his process. The mixture he used for casting type was a mixture of lead, tin and antimony. He also formulated inks that would adhere to metal type surfaces and a device for printing that was based upon a grape/wine press. Please note that Gutenberg did not use roman style lettering but rather the blackletter style which he hoped would replicate handwriting. It is believed that Gutenberg designed a font of 270 characters — several variations of each letter were used to add a human factor. Screw Press image from the University of Texas Printers in Germany fled the wrath of the church and government to friendlier climes, including Italy... 18.

ann Fust and when Gutenberg was unable to repay his

Printing Technology Spreads Causing Societal Change "Within 50 years over a thousand printers set up shop all over Europe. Many groups sought to control this new technology. Scribes fought against the introduction of printing, because it could cost them their livelihoods, and religious (and sometimes secular) authorities sought to control what was printed. Sometimes this was successful: for centuries in some European countries, books could only be printed by government authorized printers, and nothing could be printed without the approval of the Church. Printers would be held responsible rather than authors for the spread of unwanted ideas, and some were even executed. But this was a largely futile struggle, and most such restraints eventually crumbled in the western world." #17 & 18 are excerpts from the Japanese National Diet Library "Dawn of Western Printing."There are plenty of examples of type styles and a Type identification Experience . 16. Gutenberg's 42-Line Bible Circa 1455 (See it here!) Despite being a clever inventor Gutenburg was not a good businessman. He borrowed heavily from Jo
h debts Fust successfully sued to take over the business. Fust then enlisted his brother-in-law Peter Schoeffler as a business partner and they produced the bible, despite the fact that is it known as the Gutenberg bible. A collection of samples printed by Schoeffler at Bridwell Library. 17. Above: Konrad Haebler's Typenrepertorium der Wiegendrucke "... we can say roughly that in the age of incunabula, about 1,100 printers used 4,600 type founts to print 27,000 titles of books and documents.

Gothic type accounts for 79% of all types used, while Roman types represents around 19%. Besides these two major founts, Greek, Hebrew ... were created... Some 1,200 Gothic type founts were used in both Italy and Germany, and some 700 Gothic type founts in France. Most of Roman types were used by Italian printers, while only a small number of German, French and Spanish printers used Roman type. Printers in England and the Netherlands seldom or never used Roman type."